Reframing Human
Trafficking: Indonesia�s Diplomacy in Tackling Chinese Mail-Order Bride Cases
Membingkai Ulang Perdagangan
Manusia: Diplomasi
Indonesia dalam Menangani Kasus Pengantin
Post Order Tiongkok
1)* Luthfiyani Nurul Jannah, 2) Asep Setiawan, 3) Usni, 4)
Debbie Affianty
Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta, Indonesia
Email: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]
Correspondence: Luthfiyani Nurul
Jannah
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DOI: 10.59141/comserva.v4i7.2703 |
ABSTRACT The
phenomenon of Chinese mail-order brides in Indonesia gained prominence in the
1980s and resurfaced in 2017, particularly affecting regions like West
Kalimantan. This research aims to examine Indonesia�s diplomatic strategies
in addressing Chinese mail-order brides as human trafficking cases (TPPO)
from 2018 to 2021, focusing on engagements between the Indonesian Minister of
Foreign Affairs and the Chinese Government. Theoretical frameworks of
diplomacy, humanitarian diplomacy, and human security provide the analytical
lens for this study. The study employs a qualitative research method,
leveraging a comprehensive literature review of official documents, academic
sources, and credible news articles. The research findings reveal that
poverty, limited education, parental influence, and scarce employment
opportunities contribute to the prevalence of mail-order brides.
Additionally, cultural perceptions and aspirations for an improved life
exacerbate the issue. The Indonesian government, through bilateral diplomacy,
has made significant efforts, such as negotiating victim repatriation and
enhancing law enforcement collaborations with China. Notable successes
include framing mail-order bride cases as TPPO, which facilitated victim
repatriation. NGOs like the Indonesian Migrant Workers' Union (SBMI) have
played essential roles in advocacy and preventive measures. Despite these
efforts, challenges remain, such as differing cultural perspectives between
Indonesia and China and regulatory inconsistencies. Governmental complicity
and inadequate documentation have further complicated diplomatic resolutions.
The research highlights that Indonesia�s strategic reframing of mail-order
bride cases as human trafficking crimes enhances international cooperation
and offers policy innovation for addressing human rights violations. Keywords: diplomacy, mail-order brides, humanitarian, resolution, human trafficking |
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ABSTRACT Fenomena pengantin pesanan pos Tionghoa di
Indonesia menjadi terkenal pada tahun 1980-an dan muncul kembali pada tahun
2017, terutama mempengaruhi daerah seperti Kalimantan Barat. Penelitian ini
bertujuan untuk mengkaji strategi diplomatik Indonesia dalam menangani
pengantin pesanan pos Tiongkok sebagai kasus perdagangan manusia (TPPO) dari
tahun 2018 hingga 2021, dengan fokus pada keterlibatan antara Menteri Luar
Negeri Indonesia dan Pemerintah Tiongkok. Kerangka teoritis diplomasi,
diplomasi kemanusiaan, dan keamanan manusia memberikan lensa analitis untuk
penelitian ini. Studi ini menggunakan metode penelitian kualitatif,
memanfaatkan tinjauan literatur yang komprehensif dari dokumen resmi, sumber
akademik, dan artikel berita yang kredibel. Temuan penelitian mengungkapkan
bahwa kemiskinan, pendidikan yang terbatas, pengaruh orang tua, dan
kesempatan kerja yang langka berkontribusi pada prevalensi pengantin pesanan
melalui pos. Selain itu, persepsi budaya dan aspirasi untuk kehidupan yang
lebih baik memperburuk masalah ini. Pemerintah Indonesia, melalui diplomasi
bilateral, telah melakukan upaya yang signifikan, seperti menegosiasikan
pemulangan korban dan meningkatkan kolaborasi penegakan hukum dengan
Tiongkok. Keberhasilan penting termasuk membingkai kasus pengantin pesanan
pos sebagai TPPO, yang memfasilitasi pemulangan korban. LSM seperti Serikat
Pekerja Migran Indonesia (SBMI) telah memainkan peran penting dalam advokasi
dan tindakan pencegahan. Terlepas dari upaya ini, tantangan tetap ada,
seperti perbedaan perspektif budaya antara Indonesia dan Tiongkok dan
inkonsistensi peraturan. Keterlibatan pemerintah dan dokumentasi yang tidak
memadai semakin memperumit resolusi diplomatik. Penelitian ini menyoroti
bahwa pembingkaian strategis Indonesia terhadap kasus pengantin pesanan pos
sebagai kejahatan perdagangan manusia meningkatkan kerja sama internasional
dan menawarkan inovasi kebijakan untuk mengatasi pelanggaran hak asasi
manusia. Kata kunci: diplomasi, pengantin pesanan
pos, kemanusiaan, resolusi, perdagangan manusia |
INTRODUCTION
The phenomenon of mail-order brides
began to gain recognition in Indonesia in the 1980s, particularly during a wave
of migration from South Asia to Southeast Asia (CNN, 2018). This issue
resurfaced in 2017, with initial cases detected in the province of West
Kalimantan, specifically in the Singkawang and Sambas
areas. These areas became focal points for �middlemen� seeking potential
mail-order brides. Over time, the operations of these agents expanded to other
provinces, including North Kalimantan, DKI Jakarta, Central Java, West Java,
East Java, and Southeast Sulawesi (Lessy, 2006).
According to the Indonesian Migrant
Workers Union (SBMI), data from 2019 revealed that 22 women were identified as
victims of human trafficking under the guise of mail-order brides; 18 were
successfully repatriated, while two remained at the Consulate General in
Shanghai and another two stayed with their husbands. During the same year, the
Indonesian Embassy in Beijing advocated for 42 victims, repatriating 36 of
them. The year 2019 marked the highest number of mail-order bride-related human
trafficking cases. The Indonesian government has urged China to take action
against individuals involved in these trafficking cases.
The Central Statistics Agency
reported that as of March 2019, West Kalimantan had the highest poverty rate on
the island, with 269,000 people (approximately 7.37%) living below the poverty
line, defined as per capita expenditure of less than IDR 269,000 per month
(BBC, 2020). This economic vulnerability is a contributing factor to the
prevalence of mail-order brides. SBMI data from April 2019 showed that 13 women
from West Kalimantan had become trafficking victims (BBC, 2019).
Addressing cases of mail-order brides
involving Indonesian citizens, particularly from Singkawang,
presents challenges due to several underlying factors. Financial hardship and
cultural norms contribute significantly to the persistence of this practice.
The transnational nature of these marriages, often involving Indonesian brides
and Chinese men, has roots in longstanding Chinese community traditions in Singkawang. Positive anecdotes from previous brides and
narratives promoted by agents or brokers sustain this practice in Indonesian
society.
The central question of this research
is: How has the Indonesian Minister of Foreign Affairs' diplomatic engagement
with the Chinese Ambassador, particularly in reframing the issue of mail-order
brides as Trafficking in Persons (TPPO), influenced the effectiveness of
Indonesia's strategies in addressing human trafficking between 2018 and 2021
within the broader framework of diplomacy and human security?
This study contributes a novel
analysis of Indonesia's diplomatic strategies, including the innovative
reframing of mail-order bride cases as TPPO. By examining bilateral efforts
between Indonesia and China, this research enhances the understanding of transnational
trafficking and offers practical solutions rooted in sustained diplomacy and
international cooperation.
The significance of this research
lies in its comprehensive examination of Indonesia�s diplomatic initiatives
addressing mail-order brides as a form of human trafficking. This approach
situates the issue within the contexts of human rights and international law,
underscoring the importance of policy innovation. Shifting the perspective to
view mail-order brides through the lens of TPPO enables more effective
responses and strengthens the global commitment to combating human trafficking.
Literature Review
The phenomenon of mail-order brides,
particularly involving Indonesian women marrying Chinese men, has garnered
significant scholarly attention in recent years. This literature review
synthesizes various studies that explore the complexities surrounding this
issue, including the roles of state responsibility, diplomatic actions, victim
repatriation, and the socio-cultural challenges faced by these women.
Yoteni
(2021) emphasizes the critical role of the state in combating trafficking
practices associated with mail-order brides. Their research highlights that
state intervention is necessary to eliminate these practices, which often
exploit vulnerable women seeking better opportunities abroad. This aligns with
the findings of Puspita Ayu Afiyah (2020), who argues that state
representatives abroad play a pivotal role in addressing the challenges posed
by mail-order bride systems. She posits that diplomatic actions are essential
for protecting the rights of these women and ensuring their safety in foreign
countries.
Furthermore, Olivia Oktaviani (2021) discusses the potential for Indonesia to
repatriate victims of mail-order bride trafficking and establish cooperative
agreements with China to address this issue. Her study indicates that such
collaborations could facilitate the safe return of women who find themselves in
precarious situations after entering into these marriages. This perspective is
echoed by Miranti Kusama Astari (2019), who examines
the Chinese government's efforts to combat bride trafficking, particularly in
light of demographic challenges stemming from the One Child Policy, which has
led to a gender imbalance and increased demand for foreign brides (Yoteni, 2021).
Zoellner (2009) provides a
qualitative exploration of the experiences of Indonesian women who marry
Chinese men through mail-order services. Her findings reveal that these women
often encounter significant cultural and linguistic barriers, which complicate
their integration into Chinese society. This is further supported by Baviera
(2016), who examines the broader context of human trafficking involving
Indonesian women, highlighting the role of brokers and the myriad challenges
these women face in navigating their new environments.
The commodification of marriage
through mail-order bride services raises critical ethical concerns. Kim (2010)
discusses the dual narratives surrounding mail-order brides, portraying them
either as victims of exploitation or as opportunistic individuals seeking
economic stability. This dichotomy complicates the understanding of agency
among these women, as many are driven by socio-economic factors that compel
them to seek marriage abroad (Kim, 2010). Similarly, the work of Valk (2021)
emphasizes the importance of understanding the human capital these women
possess and how it influences their experiences in foreign countries (Valk,
2021).
The intersection of gender,
migration, and economic necessity is a recurring theme in the literature. Lu
(2005) notes that the mail-order bride phenomenon is often linked to broader
patterns of female labor migration, where women seek
better economic prospects through marriage. This perspective is crucial for
understanding the motivations behind these marriages and the systemic issues
that perpetuate such practices.
Moreover, the implications of bride
trafficking extend beyond individual experiences to encompass broader societal
issues. Deda et al. (2022) argue that bride trafficking is a manifestation of
human trafficking, which requires comprehensive policy responses to address the
root causes and protect vulnerable populations (Deda et al., 2022). This aligns
with the findings of (Lessy, 2006), who critiques the commodification of
marriage in the context of mail-order brides, suggesting that it can lead to
exploitation and abuse (Lessy, 2006).
Theoritical
Framework
Several theoritical
frameworks are employed in this research, encompassing diplomacy, humanitarian
diplomacy, and human security. Each concept contributes uniquely to the
comprehensive analysis of Indonesia�s diplomatic approach to the issue of
mail-order brides to China. The multifaceted nature of these frameworks
provides a robust lens for understanding Indonesia�s strategies and responses.
The concept of diplomacy, while
multifaceted, centers on the management and conduct
of international relations. According to Satow�s Diplomatic Practice, as edited
by Sir Ivor Roberts (2017), diplomacy is defined as �the process of managing
and conducting international relations through negotiation and representation,
with the aim of promoting and protecting the interests of a country, its
citizens, and its enterprises. It involves cultivating good relations with
other countries, negotiating treaties, agreements, and other legal instruments,
and settling disputes through peaceful means� (Roberts, 2017).
This definition underscores the
importance of negotiation, peaceful dispute resolution, and the representation
of national interests on a global stage (Roberts, 2017). Berridge (2015) adds
that diplomacy �is the application of tact, persuasion, communication, and
compromise�the tools of negotiation�to achieve peaceful solutions to problems
between states, including those that may ultimately require the use of force�
(Berridge, 2015, p. 2). This view highlights the essential skills and
techniques inherent in diplomatic practice, acknowledging that while diplomacy
ideally seeks peaceful resolutions, it may coexist with scenarios necessitating
force (Berridge, 2015). These definitions collectively illustrate the
complexity of diplomatic engagement, including its forms such as bilateral,
multilateral, and summit diplomacy (Roberts, 2017; Berridge, 2015).
In addition, the concept of
multi-track diplomacy expands on traditional state-centric diplomacy by
incorporating various actors beyond government officials. Diamond (1996)
defines multi-track diplomacy as �the coordinated actions of a diverse group of
people, both official and unofficial, working to address and resolve conflicts
and to promote social change� (Diamond, 1996, p. 21). This approach posits that
non-state actors, such as civil society organizations and non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), play a significant role in diplomatic processes. The
participation of these actors introduces new perspectives and resources that
complement traditional state-led diplomacy, thereby fostering more
comprehensive and sustainable solutions (Diamond, 1996). This perspective is
essential in addressing complex international challenges that require
collaborative efforts from multiple stakeholders.
Meanwhile, humanitarian diplomacy is
particularly relevant to this study due to its focus on protecting and
advocating for vulnerable populations. Humanitarian diplomacy can be defined as
�persuading decision-makers and opinion leaders to act at all times in the
interests of vulnerable people, and with full respect for fundamental
humanitarian principles� (Afsa, 2016). This form of diplomacy integrates
advocacy, negotiation, and communication to mobilize public and governmental
support for humanitarian operations (Pease & McBride, 2020). The goal is to
ensure that the protection of human rights is prioritized, particularly for
populations at risk, such as victims of human trafficking. Humanitarian
diplomacy involves various actors, including governments, international
organizations, NGOs, and the private sector, who collectively work to create
partnerships and frameworks that respond to humanitarian needs (Pease &
McBride, 2020).
Other concept that applied to this
study is human security which has gained increasing attention due to its
holistic approach to addressing threats that extend beyond traditional military
concerns. According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 1994),
human security encompasses a wide range of issues, including economic
stability, health, environmental protection, and personal safety (Mansbach
& Rhodes, 2008). Human security shifts the focus from state-centric
security to individual well-being and emphasizes that threats such as poverty,
disease, and violence require integrated approaches for effective management
(Hermawan, 2007). Alkire (2003) further explains that human security seeks to
safeguard human life and values from potential harm, advocating for proactive
measures to address emerging threats before they materialize.
UNDP (1994) divides human security
into several components:
1. Economic security: Ensuring income
stability and access to basic needs.
2. Food security: Guaranteeing
physical and economic access to sufficient food.
3. Health security: Protection
against diseases and unhealthy lifestyles.
4. Environmental security:
Safeguarding against environmental degradation and natural disasters.
5. Personal security: Protection
against violence, whether state-led or non-state-led.
6. Community security: Protection
from ethnic or religious violence.
7.
Political security: Ensuring the rights of citizens within a system that
upholds human rights (Mansbach & Rhodes, 2008).
This comprehensive framework allows
for an analysis of human security as it applies to vulnerable groups, such as
victims of human trafficking. The human security approach emphasizes the
interconnected nature of security, development, and human rights, and advocates
for policies that protect individuals from chronic and systemic threats
(Alkire, 2003).
In this research, the integration of
diplomacy, humanitarian diplomacy, and human security provides an approach to analyzing Indonesia�s diplomatic strategies concerning the
issue of mail-order brides to China. By utilizing these conceptual frameworks,
the research captures the strategic, humanitarian, and security dimensions,
offering a comprehensive analysis of Indonesia�s policy actions and diplomatic
engagements.
RESEARCH METHOD
This study adopts a qualitative
approach to examine Indonesia�s diplomatic efforts in addressing human
trafficking, specifically cases involving mail-order brides to China. As Lamont
(2015) notes, qualitative research aims to understand social phenomena from the
perspectives of those being studied, capturing the richness and complexity
inherent in these situations. This methodology is especially effective for
exploring nuanced and under-researched areas (Lamont, 2015; Bryman, 2012).
The data collection method employed
in this study is a comprehensive literature review. Secondary data sources
include official documents from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, academic
books, peer-reviewed journals, newspaper articles, and credible online
resources (Creswell, 2018; Bowen, 2009). Utilizing a diverse range of sources
allows for a holistic understanding of the research topic and ensures data
triangulation (Flick, 2014). The qualitative analysis applied in this study
follows an iterative and inductive process, as described by Creswell (2018).
This approach involves systematically collecting, organizing, and coding data
to identify patterns and emergent themes (Creswell, 2018; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Poverty has been identified as a
fundamental driver behind the prevalence of mail-order bride cases in Singkawang. The high poverty rates in West Kalimantan,
where Singkawang is located, exacerbate the economic
vulnerabilities that push women into situations where they become susceptible
to exploitation (Lessy, 2006). The economic hardships faced by many women in
this region limit their opportunities, making them more likely to consider
mail-order marriage as a means of securing financial stability. This aligns
with findings by Hapsari and Hartono (2018), who
argue that poverty is a significant factor in human trafficking.
Educational attainment also plays a
critical role in shaping the vulnerability of potential victims. Women with
lower levels of education are more prone to exploitation, as they often lack
the skills and knowledge needed to secure stable employment (Yulianti et al.,
2013). The connection between low education levels and increased vulnerability
to human trafficking is well-documented in studies by UNESCO (2015), which
emphasize that limited educational opportunities result in dependency on risky
and unregulated marriage arrangements as economic solutions.
Parental influence is another
significant aspect that perpetuates the practice of mail-order brides. In many
cases, parents encourage their daughters to marry early to reduce the financial
burden on the family. This cultural norm is exploited by brokers who present
appealing yet deceptive opportunities for marriage (Lessy, 2006). Setiawan
(2016) discusses how familial pressure can serve as an entry point for
trafficking, framing marriage as a solution to economic difficulties.
The scarcity of employment
opportunities in rural areas further compounds the problem. Women in regions
like Singkawang often have limited access to jobs
that provide sustainable income. This reality forces many women to either
assist in family agricultural activities or remain unemployed, thereby
increasing their susceptibility to exploitation (Mujioni,
2019). Additionally, cultural perceptions play a role in maintaining these
practices. In Singkawang, the ethnic Chinese
community often views marriage as a way to reinforce ties with their ancestral
homeland, making cross-border marriages more socially acceptable (Yulianti et
al., 2013). Anderson and Miller (2020) further support this by suggesting that
shared cultural heritage influences transnational marriage patterns.
The aspiration for a better life also
contributes to the issue, with many women perceiving marriage to foreign men as
a pathway to improved social and economic status. The prospect of marrying a
man from abroad, who is often seen as financially secure and socially
prestigious, becomes a powerful motivator. This aligns with the UNODC (2019)
report, which highlights how promises of a better future are frequently used by
traffickers to lure victims.
Governmental complicity and
inadequate regulation present significant challenges in addressing mail-order
bride cases. Corruption and the involvement of some officials in facilitating
fraudulent documentation, such as falsified birth certificates and altered
marriage permits, enable these practices to persist (Lessy, 2006). The systemic
weaknesses within local governance are reflected in Setiawan�s (2016) findings,
which illustrate how such collusion allows human trafficking to continue.
The Indonesian government's response
has included various diplomatic and legal measures to combat the issue.
Bilateral diplomacy, led by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, has sought to
protect Indonesian citizens and foster cooperation with Chinese authorities to
repatriate victims and strengthen law enforcement against traffickers (Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, 2019). Foreign Minister Retno Marsudi�s initiatives have
highlighted the need for thorough vetting of marriage documentation and
collaborative legal action (Liputan6, 2019).
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
like the Indonesian Migrant Workers' Union (SBMI) play a crucial role in these
efforts through Track Two diplomacy. These NGOs complement state efforts by
advocating for policy changes and providing on-the-ground support for victims (Mujioni, 2019). This collaborative approach enhances the
overall efficacy of diplomatic interventions.
Preventative measures have also been
implemented, including educational outreach programs aimed at raising awareness
among the public. The Directorate of Indonesian Citizens Protection and
Consular Affairs has initiated campaigns in collaboration with local media and
schools in Singkawang to disseminate information on
the dangers of mail-order bride practices (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2019).
Media partnerships, such as those with Pontianak TV and Radio Sonora FM, have
further contributed to public education and awareness.
Judicial proceedings have been an
essential part of addressing human trafficking. Notably, trials in Sanggau District Court, such as case number 28/Pid.Sus/2020/PN Sag, have prosecuted traffickers involved
in mail-order bride cases (SBMI, 2020). The enforcement of Law No. 6 of 2011 on
Immigration has strengthened efforts to prevent trafficking by regulating the
issuance of travel documents and monitoring the movement of potential victims.
The handling of mail-order bride
cases involving Indonesian citizens has seen mixed success, with an estimated
resolution rate of approximately 50% annually. This achievement highlights the
persistent efforts by the Indonesian government, particularly the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, in protecting citizens entangled in mail-order bride cases.
Between 2015 and 2019, the Directorate of Protection of Indonesian Citizens and
Legal Entities Abroad (PWNI and BHI) managed to resolve 90 cases, facilitating
the safe return of the victims to Indonesia (Asmara, 2021).
Table 1. Number of
cases of mail-order brides handled and cases
completed
in 2015-2019 in Indonesia
|
Year |
Handled Cases |
Resolved Cases
|
|
2015 |
2 |
1 |
|
2016 |
33 |
31 |
|
2017 |
12 |
9 |
|
2018 |
26 |
13 |
|
2019 |
42 |
36 |
|
2020 |
- |
- |
|
2021 |
- |
- |
|
Total |
115 |
90 |
Source: Indonesia�s Ministry of Foreign Affairs
(2020) and the
author
However, data from 2020 and 2021
regarding mail-order bride cases handled by the Directorate of PWNI and BHI
remain unavailable due to the diversion of government resources toward managing
the COVID-19 pandemic. Originating in Wuhan, China, the pandemic led to strict
travel restrictions by various countries, including Singapore, Hong Kong,
Taiwan, the UAE, Oman, and Saudi Arabia, which further complicated diplomatic
efforts (Asmara, 2021).
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in
collaboration with the Chinese Embassy in Jakarta and the Directorate General
of Immigration, made substantial progress in addressing these cases, notably in
2019. Diplomatic engagements between Indonesia and China were pivotal, as
Indonesia successfully advocated for recognition of mail-order bride cases as
instances of human trafficking, thereby facilitating the repatriation of
victims. This alignment in perspective marked a significant milestone in
bilateral cooperation (Liputan6, 2019).
The Chinese government�s agreement to
cooperate with Indonesia included measures such as law enforcement to apprehend
agents operating within both countries. The Indonesian Embassy in Beijing
played an active role in liaising with authorities in Henan and Hubei
provinces, resulting in the arrest of key facilitators and agents involved in
these human trafficking networks. However, such detentions had to align with
local legal protocols (Liputan6, 2019). Furthermore, the embassy initiated a
policy whereby visa extensions for Indonesian citizens required direct
submission to the Indonesian Embassy, enhancing monitoring and data collection
for citizens residing in China.
One critical challenge in addressing
mail-order bride cases was the use of falsified documents, including forged
identification cards (KTP), family cards (KK), and marriage certificates. The
existence of fraudulent documentation placed these cases firmly within the
realm of human trafficking, as defined by the International Labour Organization
(ILO). The ILO Committee of Experts� standards for identifying forced labor include physical violence, document falsification,
threats, fraud, wage withholding, and the retention of identity documents
(Liputan6, 2019). These indicators were evident in many mail-order bride cases,
underscoring their classification as human trafficking.
Prior to 2019, governmental actions
to address mail-order bride cases were limited. It was not until numerous
reports surfaced those authorities recognized the indications of trafficking
within these cases. The Singkawang region of West
Kalimantan, in particular, faced a surprising surge in mail-order bride
incidents, revealing underlying social and cultural factors, especially within
communities of Chinese descent. The Indonesian Migrant Workers Union (SBMI)
highlighted these issues, noting that socio-cultural biases contributed to the
proliferation of such practices (Oktaviani, 2021).
In response to the rise in reported
cases, Indonesia�s Ministry of Foreign Affairs spearheaded direct efforts to
break the chain of mail-order bride cases, notably in 2019. However,
significant obstacles remain, particularly concerning the legal validity of
marriage documents. Indonesia views these cases as severe instances of human
trafficking involving coercion and exploitation, while China often perceives
them as private family matters, making state intervention challenging (Oktaviani, 2021). These differing legal and cultural
perspectives continue to pose hurdles in achieving comprehensive resolutions.
CONCLUSION
The prevalence of mail-order bride
cases is significantly influenced by the lack of moral integrity and empathy
among government officials responsible for processing marriage documentation.
In West Kalimantan, agents or brokers involved in arranged marriages often
maintain close relationships with these officials to expedite the processing of
inter-country marriage documents, such as visas, birth certificates, and
marriage certificates. Despite these documents receiving official approval,
they are frequently falsified, such as altering young victims� ages to meet
legal marriage requirements in Indonesia. This mail-order bride phenomenon has
severe repercussions for the victims, who often endure physical trauma and
inhumane treatment from husbands and their families, including deprivation of
food, forced labor, continuous administration of
fertility drugs, and exposure to violence. Additionally, these victims face
social stigmatization and shame due to their experiences. Indonesia�s
diplomatic efforts to address mail-order bride cases focus on establishing a
shared understanding that these cases constitute human trafficking crimes
(TPPO). Non-state actors, such as the Indonesian Migrant Workers Union (SBMI),
have also facilitated more effective prevention and response measures.
Indonesia�s diplomatic engagement with China, particularly in response to the
surge in reports in 2019, demonstrates a commitment to protecting its citizens
both domestically and internationally, resulting in a reduction in victim numbers.
However, Indonesia�s diplomatic initiatives have encountered numerous
challenges. Externally, a key obstacle is the differing perspectives between
Indonesia and China regarding the nature of mail-order bride cases, as
convincing the Chinese government that these cases involve human trafficking
rather than mere domestic disputes has proven challenging. Government policies
also hinder the diplomatic process due to insufficient evidence, a lack of
witnesses, and inadequate documentation in both Indonesia and China,
complicating diplomatic negotiations even as the number of reported cases rose
in 2019 compared to 2018. Limited internet access imposed by local authorities
further hampers the Indonesian citizen service portal�s functionality for both
representatives abroad and citizens in China, compounded by low digital
literacy among Indonesian citizens, which limits data for preventing and
assisting victims of mail-order bride cases.
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